This Date in Aviation History: December 12 - December 15

[ttyymmnn]

The second of two X-29 experimental forward-swept wing aircraft flies over the California desert in 1990. Strips of cloth attached to the fuselage and wings help visualize airflow over these surfaces. (NASA)

December 14, 1984 – The first flight of the Grumman X-29. The idea that swept wings might be useful in supersonic flight was proposed in 1935 by German aerodynamicist Adolf Busemann. The swept wing has the benefit of producing less drag at transsonic and supersonic speeds, though no aircraft were available at the time that could fly at such speeds. Later in WWII, with the arrival of the operational jet engine, the Germans worked at the forefront of swept wing technology, with both experimental and operational swept wing aircraft. The Messerschmitt Me 262, the world’s first operational jet fighter, employed a wing that was swept by 18.5 degrees.

Junkers Ju 287, a prototype four-engine bomber with forward-swept wings. Only two were built, and it took its maiden flight in August 1944. (Author unknown)

While working with traditional swept wing aircraft, German scientists, along with others in Poland and the United States, also experimented with the concept of a forward-swept wing. Perhaps counterintuitively, a forward-swept wing has the same drag-reducing properties of a traditional swept wing, with the added benefit of improved stall characteristics, since the air that is swept along the wing concentrates at the wing root rather than the wing tip. Additionally, the spar box, which supports the wing, can be placed farther aft, opening up more space inside the fuselage. The Germans actually built a large bomber with forward-swept wings, the Junkers Ju 287, but they soon learned that the stresses placed on the wings and fuselage, particularly during high-speed turns, were too great for the materials of the day, and a phenomenon known as aeroelastic flutter threatened to tear the wings off the aircraft.

The HFB-320 Hansa Jet, a forward-swept wing business jet and the first production aircraft to be fitted with such wings. This layout allows for greater unobstructed cabin space, since the wing box was attached behind the passenger cabin. (Author unknown)

Experiments with the concept of forward-swept wings continued after the war, and the design was utilized on the HFB 320 Hansa Jet, an otherwise traditional business jet with forward-swept wings. But the Hansa Jet was never designed to fly beyond the speed of sound, and the structural problems associated with aeroelastic flutter remained unsolved. What was needed was a material that was strong enough to handle the stresses of supersonic flight, while remaining light enough so as not to hinder the aircraft’s performance. By the 1980s, those materials were finally available in the form of carbon-fiber composites and graphite epoxy, and Grumman put both of to use in the construction of the X-29.

Both X-29 aircraft on Rogers Dry Lake in 1990. The characteristic long pointed nose of the F-5 Freedom Fighter, as well as the splayed main gear of the F-16, can be seen. (NASA)

In order to save money, the two X-29s were built using the nose and forward landing gear taken from a pair of Northrop F-5A Freedom Fighters, and control actuators and main gear from the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. It was powered by a single General Electric F404 turbofan, the same engine found on the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. With its wing swept forward at more than 33 degrees, the X-29 was one of the most unstable aircraft ever built. Only with constant corrections provided by the triple-redundant flight computer through its fly-by-wire controls was the X-29 able to fly without tumbling out of the sky. But that instability also meant that the X-29 was extremely maneuverable, and inherent instability, or relaxed stability, with computer assistance is a component of many current fighter aircraft.

The second X-29, 82-0049, flown by NASA test pilot Rogers Smith, demonstrates the high angle of attack possible with the X-29. A smoke generator in the nose helps visualize airflow over the front of the aircraft. Note also the rescue parachute mounted above the engine exhaust nozzle. (NASA)

When the X-29 took to the air, it was only the third jet-powered aircraft to fly with forward-swept wings. The two experimental aircraft made a total of 242 test flights over a seven-year program that ended in 1991. The second aircraft was fitted with a rescue parachute in case of an unrecoverable stall while carrying out flight tests that explored high angles of attack, and it achieved as much as 45 degrees AOA, more than any contemporary fighter. The X-29 was also the first forward-swept wing aircraft to exceed Mach 1 in level flight. Though the test program did not demonstrate the overall reduction in drag Grumman hoped for, its use of pioneering construction materials and computerized flight control have had a far-reaching influence over subsequent aircraft design. Both X-29s have since been retired, and they are currently on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force and the Armstrong Flight Research Center.

The first X-29, serial number 82-003, hangs in the Research and Development Gallery at the National Museum of the United States Air Force (Tim Shaffer)

A Boeing 787-Dreamliner arrives at Dallas-Fort Worth airport after a flight from Beijing, a distance of nearly 7,000 miles (Tim Shaffer)

December 15, 2009 – The first flight of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. In the modern age of air travel, the battle between airliner designers, particularly Boeing and Airbus, is largely one of passenger load and efficiency, with each company seeking ways to fly passengers to distant destinations while using as little fuel as possible. A large part of that effort has gone into engine design, and modern high-bypass turbofan engines have become marvels of efficiency. With as many miles per gallon as possible being wrung out of the engines, the other major area that money savings can be found is in the use of new materials for the construction of the aircraft itself, materials that are strong yet light, as weight is one of the great enemies of fuel efficiency.

The prototype Boeing 787 departs from Paine Field in Everett, Washington on its maiden flight (Dave Sizer)

Boeing began to tackle the problem fuel efficiency back in the late 1990s at a time when the airliner sales market started to cool off, and they sought a replacement aircraft to bolster sagging sales of their wide-body 747-400 and 767. They considered the 747X, a lengthened version of the 747-400, and even the Sonic Cruiser, a radical delta wing aircraft which offered higher speeds than were obtainable in current aircraft. The Sonic Cruiser was eventually abandoned in 2002 in favor of a more traditional design and would become the 787, but much of what Boeing learned in the development of the Sonic Cruiser, particularly the use of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers, was put to use on what Boeing now called the Dreamliner. Boeing gave the new airliner the internal designation 7E7, and it was the first production airliner to be built from one-piece, composite sections rather than riveted aluminum. Ultimately, the final breakdown of materials was 50% composite, 20% aluminum, 15% titanium, 10% steel, and 5% other materials.

The serrated edges of the engine nacelle, called chevrons, help reduce engine noise. Here, the nacelle is opened as the thrust reverser of the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 is deployed on landing. (Eric Prado)

According to Boeing, the savings in weight for this type of construction, coupled with two new engines, the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx high-bypass turbofans, made the Dreamliner 20% more fuel efficient than the 767 while carrying more passengers. The engines generate from 53,000-74,000 pounds of thrust, and have a massive fan diameter of 9.5 feet. The serrated edges of the engine nacelle, which Boeing calls chevrons, help reduce the noise from the jet exhaust by controlling how the exhaust mixes with the cooler air bypassing the engine core. The chevrons are so effective that hundreds of pounds of sound-dampening insulation could be removed. Depending on the variant, the 787 can accommodate as many as 440 passengers in a single-class configuration (787-10), and can fly 8,786 miles on a single load of fuel. Boeing builds the Dreamliner in three main variants, the 787-7, -9, and -10. While the 787-10 carries the greatest passenger load, the -9 has the greatest range. Australian carrier Qantas recently carried out experiments with their aptly named flight QF7879, flying a 787-9 from London Heathrow to Sydney, an unrefueld distance of over 10,500 miles while spending 19.5 hours in the air.

A Boeing 787-8 of All Nippon Airways, the launch customer for the 787 (Spaceaero2)

The development of such a pioneering airliner as the 787 was beset with delays. Boeing struggled to get the Dreamliner down to its intended weight, as some parts had to be redesigned with heavier titanium, and delays in obtaining fasteners and difficulty with the software kept pushing back delivery dates. All told, Boeing lost nearly $30 billion while delivering the first 500 787s. Nevertheless, Boeing had 677 orders for the Dreamliner by 2007, more than any other previous widebody. Following extensive testing and certification, the first Dreamliner was officially delivered to the 787’s launch customer, All Nippon Airways (ANA), on September 25, 2o11 at the Boeing factory in Everett, Washington, and the airliner entered service the following month. As of October 2019, Boeing had received orders for 1,455 orders for the three variants of the Dreamliner, with 906 delivered. In October 2018, Boeing rolled out the 787th Dreamliner, which will enter service with China Southern Airlines. However, weak sales in the wide-body market, driven in large part by the COVID-19 pandemic, will see Boeing cut production to just five Dreamliners per month in 2021, and production of the 787 will move from Boeing's Washington headquarters to South Carolina.

An F-35A Lightning II aircraft assigned to Hill Air Force Base, Utah, prepares to be refueled by a 459th Air Refueling Wing KC-135 Stratotanker during a flight to Graf Ignatievo Air Base, Bulgaria, April 28, 2017. (US Air Force)

December 15, 2006 – The first flight of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. Back in the early 1960s, both the US Navy and US Air Force needed to replace aging aircraft, and newly appointed Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, well known for his micromanagement of America’s war efforts in Vietnam, ordered the two branches to pursue a common aircraft in an effort to save money. Even though the Navy and Air Force had very different requirements, McNamara dictated that the new aircraft, the General Dynamics F-111, would be designed first for the Air Force, and development of a carrier-based version for the Navy would follow. Finding that there was no chance that the F-111 would become a successful naval fighter-bomber, the Navy eventually pulled out of the program and developed the remarkable Grumman F-14 Tomcat on their own.

The prototype X-35 photographed during a test flight over Edwards Air Force Base in California (US Air Force)

Despite the difficulties faced by the US military in developing a single platform to satisfy very different requirements in the 1960s, the Pentagon once again embarked on a similar path with the announcement of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) competition in 1993. The goal was to develop a single basic aircraft that would serve the very different missions of the Air Force, Navy and US Marine Corps, as well as the needs of numerous export countries. It was hoped that the new fighter could perform the combined missions of the various aircraft it was slated to replace: the General Dynamics F-16, Fairchild Republic A-10, McDonnell Douglas F/A-18, McDonnell Douglas AV-8B, and British Aerospace Harrier II. The competition for what would become the largest defense contract in history was fought between the Boeing X-32 and Lockheed Martin X-35. The X-35, which first flew on October 24, 2000, was declared the winner in 2001.

Not a steam gauge in sight. The cockpit of the F-35 features huge flat screens, and doesn’t even include a compass. In the event of power loss, batteries will power the screens long enough for the pilot to make an emergency landing. (Lockheed Martin)

Drawing on elements of their F-22 Raptor air superiority fighter, Lockheed included features of stealth technology, integrated avionics, a computerized maintenance management system, and data networking to provide the pilot with unparalleled situational awareness. More than a simple attack plane, the F-35 is a digital information hub, capable of taking data from satellites, aircraft, and ground forces and combining it to form a complete picture of the battle space. The use of nanocomposites, specifically carbon nanotube reinforced epoxy, makes the F-35 the first mass-produced aircraft to employ these lightweight yet strong materials. The Lightning II is powered by a single Pratt & Whitney F135 afterburning turbofan engine and, while it is not capable of supercruise, it can maintain a speed of Mach 1.2 for a distance of 150 miles.

An F-35B assigned to the Patuxent River Integrated Test Force performs flight trials aboard the Royal Navy aircraft carrier HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08) on November 3, 2018. The Royal Navy and Royal Air Force will operate the F-35B to replace the Harrier GR9 and Tornado GR4.

To fulfill the varied requirements of the different branches of the military, Lockheed produces the F-35 in three main variants: the F-35A, a traditional fighter-bomber for the Air Force; the F-35B, a short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) version for the Marine Corps; and the F-35C, a fully navalized variant for the US Navy. The Marine STOVL version has a pivoting engine nozzle for hovering, while the same engine powers a forward lift fan through a complex drive shaft. Testing is currently underway to determine the feasibility of operating the F-35B from smaller amphibious assault ships in what is being called the “Lightning Carrier” concept.

Thirteen US Marine Corps F-35B Lightning II with Marine Fighter Attack Squadron (VMFA) 122 are staged aboard amphibious assault ship USS America (LHA 6) on Oct. 8, 2019. (US Navy)

The entire F-35 program has been plagued with delays, software development problems, and massive cost overruns. By 2014, the Lightning II was $163 billion over budget and seven years behind schedule. Considering the entire development costs and operating budget for a planned 55 years of service, the F-35 program is projected to cost $1.1 trillion, making it the most expensive weapons program in history. These problems have led some international customers to reduce their commitment to buying the new fighter, but plans are still in the works for 3,146 F-35s to be built and delivered by 2035, with 1,763 ordered for the US Air Force, 247 for the US Navy, and 733 for the US Marine Corps. The F-35 is also exported to 13 other nations. In spite of continuing problems and systems that were not ready for battle, the Marines declared initial operating capability of the F-35B in July 2015, while the Air Force declared the F-35A combat ready in 2016. Forward deployment of the F-35A has already begun to global hotspots, while the Navy’s F-35C is expected to be deployed for the first time in 2021.

An F-35C Lightning II from the Rough Raiders of Strike Fighter Squadron (VFA) 125 launches from the flight deck of the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72) on August 29, 2018. (US Navy)

(Pedro Aragão)

December 12, 1985 – The crash of Arrow Air Flight 1285, a chartered Douglas DC-8 (N950JW) that was carrying eight crew members and 248 soldiers of the US Army 101st Airborne Division returning to Fort Campbell, Kentucky after serving in a peacekeeping mission in the Sinai Peninsula. On the final leg of the flight, the DC-8 crashed shortly after takeoff from Gander, Newfoundland, killing all on board. The investigation concluded that the crash was caused by the accumulation of ice on the wings, as well as incorrect weight calculations. However, some investigators dissented, saying that a fire or explosive device likely caused the crash. The accident remains the deadliest single peacetime loss of life in the history of the US Army and the worst crash on Canadian soil.

(US Navy)

December 12, 1979 – The first flight of the Sikorsky SH-60B Seahawk, a navalized variant of the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk utility helicopter originally developed for the US Army. Also known as the Sea Hawk, the SH-60B was developed to replace the Kaman SH-2 Seasprite, and it shares 83% commonality with its Army predecessor, with the most significant structural difference being a hinged tail for on-deck storage. The Seahawk also differs by the addition of oleo main gear struts, the shifting forward of the tail wheel, and a more powerful engine. Able to operate from any air-capable ship, the Seahawk is designed for anti-submarine warfare, anti-surface warfare, naval special warfare, search and rescue, vertical replenishment, and medical evacuation. Further variants have replaced the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King and Boeing CH-46 Sea Knight.

(CanadianBushPilot)

December 12, 1951 – The first flight of the de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter. With the DHC-2 Beaver, de Havilland Canada had built a reputation for rugged aircraft that were capable of taking off from short or unimproved airstrips, and the DHC-3 Otter was designed to be a larger and more powerful aircraft that could perform the same mission. Originally called the King Beaver, the DHC-3 is longer and heavier than the DHC-2 and can seat 10-11 passengers. Originally fitted with a Pratt & Whitney R-1340 geared radial engine, some Otters have been upgraded with a turboprop engine and are known as the Turbo Otter. The Otter is capable of operating from land, from sea with floats, or from snow with skis, and 466 Otters were produced from 1951-1967.

(Anthony Noble)

December 14, 1979 – The first flight of the EA-7 Edgley Optica, a light observation aircraft designed to be a low-cost alternative to helicopters. The unique design features a glazed bubble canopy set well forward which provides excellent visibility, a twin boom tail, and tricycle landing gear. The original Optica was powered by a Lycoming IO-320 engine driving a ducted, fixed-pitch propeller, an arrangement that resulted in very quiet operation. Production of 22 aircraft was followed by numerous changes in Edgley’s ownership, and financial difficulties led to a halt in production. However, the transportation consulting and finance firm InterFlight Global is investigating the possibility of restarting production.

(ISAF)

December 14, 1977 – The first flight of the Mil Mi-26, a heavy lift helicopter designed for civilian and military use and the largest and most powerful helicopter ever to enter production. Powered by two Lotarev D-136 turboshaft engines and fitted with an eight-bladed main rotor, the Mi-26 is capable of lifting 44,000 pounds and was designed to replace the Mi-6 and Mi-12 heavy-lift helicopters. The Mi-26’s main purpose is to move extremely heavy equipment between Russian military bases, such as armored personnel carriers and mobile ballistic missiles, with some payloads weighing as much as 29,000 pounds. A total of 316 Mi-26s have been built, and the helicopter remains in production.

(Author unknown)

December 14, 1963 – The death of Marie Marvingt. Born on February 20, 1875, Marvingt was a French adventurer, athlete, and aviatrix who won numerous awards for her achievements in sports and aviation. In 1909 she became the first woman to pilot a balloon across the North Sea and the English Channel and, during WWI, Marvingt became the first woman to fly combat missions and the world’s first trained and certified Flight Nurse. Following the war, Marvingt worked to establish air ambulance services around the world, and received the Deutsch de la Meurthe grand prize from the Fédération Nationale d’Aéronautique for her work in aviation medicine.

(US Air Force; Author unknown)

December 15, 1944 – The disappearance of Glenn Miller, one of the best-known and most prolific composers and performers of the Big Band Era. Wanting to take part in the war effort during WWII, Miller convinced the US Army to allow him to enlist at age 38 to form a “modernized Army band.” He was given the rank of captain and soon promoted to major. While flying as a passenger on a flight from England to France for a performance, Miller’s Noorduyn UC-64 Norseman disappeared over the English Channel and was never found. The reason for the disappearance was never determined, but a likely cause was engine failure from an iced carburetor. Another theory is that his plane strayed into an area where Allied bombers jettisoned unused bombs into the English Channel while returning to England, but plane spotters said that Miller’s aircraft was not headed into that area the last time it was seen.

This Date in Aviation History: December 9 - December 11

This Date in Aviation History: December 5 - December 8

Aviation Stuff I Found On The Internet

If you enjoy This Date in Aviation History, please let me know in the comments

[Qaaaaa]

If you're reading this, congratulations! You made it to the bottom!

[krustywantout]

@ttyymmnn The matrix has a glitch. Great stuff as usual.

[Smallbear]

@ttyymmnn Fun fact: due to the strangled state of Germany's resources by 1944, not to mention desperate hurry to create a wonderweapon that could potentially reverse it's fortunes, the Ju287 uses the nose wheels from a B24 Liberator.

[ttyymmnn]

@krustywantout said in This Date in Aviation History: December 12 - December 15:

@ttyymmnn The matrix has a glitch. Great stuff as usual.

jminer "fixed" the glitch.

[ttyymmnn]

@smallbear said in This Date in Aviation History: December 12 - December 15:

@ttyymmnn Fun fact: due to the strangled state of Germany's resources by 1944, not to mention desperate hurry to create a wonderweapon that could potentially reverse it's fortunes, the Ju287 uses the nose wheels from a B24 Liberator.

How did they manage that? Did we leave enough of them strewn across Germany?

[Qaaaaa]

@ttyymmnn I'd guess they either asked nicely or shot a couple down

[pyroholtz]

@ttyymmnn

"...while the Navy’s F-35C is expected to be deployed for the first time in 2o21."

Should be 2021. And, why is the entire post, doubled up?

[ttyymmnn]

@pyroholtz

@pyroholtz said in This Date in Aviation History: December 12 - December 15:

And, why is the entire post, doubled up?

I fixed it. I write these in advance, and then copy paste everything into the left side of the editor. I had to wait for jminer to increase the character limit, and I think it inadvertently got pasted twice. Thanks for pointing out out, and the other typo as well. I'll take care of it.

[Smallbear]

@ttyymmnn Not sure exactly, but yeah, one must have come down in close enough to one piece that it was salvageable. Inconvenient engine failure maybe. There were certainly enough in action that the odds of salvageable parts being available doesn't seem like a problem.

[Chariotoflove]

@ttyymmnn

The cockpit of the future (or a long, long time ago):